Gösta Frohm Figure 1 (Nordlöv) was neither a philosopher nor an educationalist. However, he made an important contribution, in his native country of Sweden and internationally through teaching ecological concepts to young children (Joyce, 2012).
He came from a military background and he was involved at a national level with the Association for Promotion of outdoor life – Friluftsfrämjandet. It was founded in 1892 and was a voluntary, apolitical, non-profit making, independent organization (Joyce, 2012). Joyce (2012) continues the organization started off promoting skiing activities for adults and gradually, other activities were added for younger people.
After the First World War in Sweden, there was great concern regarding the health of the nation. Consequently, the Government started to promote outdoor activities for children to learn to ski and to improve their physical well-being (Joyce, 2012).
In the early 1950s there was little snow for skiing and this was the perfect opportunity for Frohm to develop his own ideas for children’s outdoor activities. He felt that children weren’t connected to nature as they used to be.
Frohm (Joyce, 2012) believed that in order to develop love and respect for nature, young children have to be involved in outdoor activities before they become corrupted by the lure of society, technology and commercialism
In 1957 Frohm set up and developed a concept Skogsmulle school Figure 2 (Pettersson) for children from 5 to 6 years of age (Robertson, 2008), with a simple philosophy: ‘ if you can help children to love nature they will take care of nature, because you cherish things you love’ (Linde cited in Joyce, 2012 p.89).
Linde( Joyce, 2012 p.84 ) in Swedish ‘Skog’ means ‘wood’ and ‘Mulle’ is a fictional, cheery innocent character who lives in the forest. Skogsmulle helps children learn to love and care for nature and learn about the natural environment.
Skogsmulle has friends (Robertson, 2008; Joyce, 2012), Laxe, Fjällfina, Nova and Urban as shown in Figure 2 (Pettersson)
Frohm (Joyce, 2012) believed like McMillan and Froebel before him, that children benefit from first-hand sensory experiences. His approach involved (Joyce, 2012 p.89) ‘ love nature through fairy tales, songs, music and games while out in the woods studying plants and animals’ . Frohm felt that by taking children to the forest they would benefit from hands on experiences. He believed that children learn from the teacher and the teacher also learns from the children in an active participative way as shown in Figure 3 (Abel, 2012) ethical permission has been given by the parents to use photos.
In the 1950’s many mothers were training to become Skosmulle leaders while at home with their children. Frohm welcomed close child and parent interaction and this was important in Skogsmulle philosophy and practice (Joyce, 2012) .
When the Skogsmulle concept was later introduced, a precondition to its use in kindergartens, nurseries and pre-schools was that teachers should attend a Skogsmulle leader course held by Friluftsfrämjandet. At this point, they were then entitled to use Skogsmulle activities, either in their gardens or nearby forest (Joyce, 2012).
According to Joyce (2012), Frohms’s biggest legacy is the evolution of the I Ur och Skur (Figure 4). In 1985 the first forest school ‘I Ur och Skur,’ which means ‘Rain or Shine’ was founded in Sweden by Siw Linde, she was a trained Skogsmulle leader with support from her husband, Magnus and another nursery worker Susanne Drougge.
Linde followed Frohm’s (Joyce, 2012) first-hand, sensory approach to learning outdoors. However, she added method and theory to this in order to look closely at the potential for intellectual, physical, emotional and social development in the outdoor environment. Central to I Ur och Skur thinking is reflective practice, where participants, both adults and children, reflect on their experiences and learn from them. The idea was that the adults would be supporting or ‘scaffolding’ (Vygotsky, in Pound, 2006) children’s learning and moving them to the next stage. This is done through observation, seeing the world through children’s eyes, careful listening and communications between practitioners/parents and children (Joyce, 2012).
In Sweden there is a highly developed view of the child based on democratic values which gives respect for the child as a person in its own right and a belief in the child’s inherent skills and potential (Gunnarson, Martin Korpi & Nordenstam, 1999).
Joyce (2012) writes Swedish values of treating the child as a person in its own right are reflective of the UK’s “The unique child” in the DfES( 2007) EYFS as both concepts work towards giving the child the chance to develop as a unique individual. However, in Sweden this is really underpinned by the political emphasis on democracy and equality.
Children are out every day, in every season Figure 5 (Abel,2012). If the weather is really bad or the temperature falls below- 10C then the children will spend up to three hours inside at some point of the day, however 80% of the day is spend outdoors (Robertson,2008).
Outdoor activities, games and play are explored in various non- competitive ways at all ages. In a preschool context play has served an important function linked to education. It can be said play is now accorded the same importance as formal learning in Sweden and is regarded as necessary for making sense of surrounding world and this has been clearly influenced by Skogsmulle School (Knight, 2013).
In Sweden there are approximately two hundred and twenty three I Ur och Skul units all over the country, catering for children from 1 to 11 years of age (Joyce, 2012). According to Siw she believes that the strong parental support has been a key factor in the success of an I Ur och Skur (Robertson, 2008). I Ur och Skur schools have been established in Japan, UK, Germany, Russia, Finland, Latvia and Norway.
UDESKOLE DANISH SCHOOLS
The Danish like the Swedish approach uses the outdoor environment as a part of the pedagogy of early year’s settings. It started in the mid nineteenth century through Frobel’s (1782-1852) kindergarten approach to learning (Williams-Siegfredsen). This has inspired Danish pedagogues to start a kindergarten system that included an ‘outdoor school’ called Udeskole to provide opportunities for young children. Children are encouraged (Bentsen et al. 2010, Williams-Siegfredsen)to engage with nature through educational contexts, learning through play and exploration for example; children are given the cameras to take pictures what captures their imagination as shown in Figure 6 (Abel, 2014).
Mygind described udeskole as a bottom-up phenomenon started by devoted and enthusiastic teachers originating from ( Bentson et al.2010 p.237) ‘the reality in the Danish school system’’. Therefore, it has been thought that Udeskole has spread in Danish schools by local voluntary initiatives by ‘enthusiastic teachers and schools, in contrast to central/top –down initiatives, e.g. ministerial and municipal programmes’ (Bentsen et.al. 2010 p. 237).
Every ‘forest school’ in Denmark is different; each outdoor environment is unique and varies depending on where it is situated and according to the people who are using it, for example: children, parents and pedagogues (Williams-Siegfredsen).
In Denmark a high percentage of men work as pedagogues. Cummings (2010) believes it could be because, Danish pedagogues have much higher status, which is reflected in their pay compared to UK early years practitioners. Cummings (2010) continues 94 per cent of pedagogues belong to a union and pedagogues who run kindergarten see themselves as social educators.
Family values and a true reflection of democracy and humanism are strongly underpinned in Danish pedagogy. This was clear in a survey conducted in 2009 by Copenhagen Council which identified the values that parents and pedagogues felt most important for children to learn and experience in early years settings as: ‘self-worth, independence, consideration for others, and tolerance’ (Williams-Siegfredsen p.53) In keeping with the emphasis on nature, they also identified that children should experience spending time in nature, learning about animals in a peaceful and tranquil environment (Williams-Siegfredsen).
Williams-Siegfredsen continues, In 2004 the curriculum for pre-school settings in Denmark became law and every setting has to make an institutional curriculum plan that covers six areas of learning:
• All-round personal development
• Social development
• Language
• Body and movement
• Nature and natural phenomena
• Cultural expression and values
Williams-Siegfredsen writes, four learning processes, ‘to be able’, ‘to experience’, ‘to enjoy’ and ‘to understand’; are facilitated within these six areas of learning and regular access to the natural environment fully supports this.
Often the Danish Nature Kindergartens settings are modelled on the child’s home life and the belief that children should feel comfortable and safe within this environment. Parents are encouraged Figure 7 (Abel, 2014) to take part of activities and be involved in their children’s lives (Cummings, 2010). As in Sweden, children spend most of the day (up to 80%) outside, no matter what the weather.
Even though, ‘the education outside the classroom has become increasingly popular and even increased during the last decade in Denmark’( Christensen, 2004; The Forest in the School, 2008; cited in Bentson et al. 2010 p.236) there are some ‘economic’ barriers to practicing udeskole for example: cost for transportation, salary for an extra teacher, and cost for training of staff ( Bentson et al. 2010).
The Danish attitude towards risk is positive. Safety concerns are not a major barrier (Bentson et al. 2010)for Udeskole practitioners and our culture’s obsession with health and safety is regarded with bemusement (Forest School Wales). Children are motivated to expand their limits, to try climbing the trees, hanging from branches as shown on Figure 8 (Abel, 2014). The Danish outdoor aim is to counteract concerns that childhood has become overprotected and believe that external education makes children more creative and independent.
AUSTRALIA
Australians have been perceived as active, outdoor people, living among the natural elements of sand, sea, surf and bush. However, in reality, this is not so for many Australians, research shows only 35 per cent of Australian children play outdoors every day and opportunities for children to be active outdoors are declining (Reidy, 2012). Like many western countries, Australia is witnessing the negative impacts of urban living, risk aversion, virtual world via i-devices, and limited access to outdoor play. This has been linked to children’s social and health issues, well-being and development (Elliott,in Knight, 2013).
In 2009 Australian government published its’ first ever national curriculum framework Belonging, Being & Becoming: Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) of Australia (Commonwealth DEEWR, 2009) and the National Quality Standards (NQS) (ACECQA, 2011 Elliott in Knight, 2013).
The first document EYLF (Commonwealth DEEWR, 2009) is not only a landmark document that covers five broad principles: ‘secure, respectful and reciprocal relationships; partnerships; high expectations and equity; respect for diversity; and ongoing learning and reflective practice’ (Elliott, in Knight 2013 p. 115) but also refers to the spiritual aspect of children’s lives and considers its (the spiritual’s) role in children’s learning and wellbeing (Grajczonek).
The second document NQS (ACECQA, 2011 cited in Knight, 2013) offers direct guidance on the importance of outdoor play in nature and provides educators with information on appropriate challenge, and risk taking in the early childhood years. So far, Australian like American educators, have been trying to reduce the challenge of outdoor play due to potential legal implications of injury, even though they are aware that such restrictions result in educational compromise for children. ( Bundy et al. 2009).
In 2010, the Australian government announced that kindergarten hours were required to be increased from 12 hours to 15 hours per week from January 2013. In response to that Westgarth kindergarten community established a pilot Bush Kinder programme in May 2011 (Fargher, 2012).
The concept was branded as ‘Bush Schools’ because Australian folklore has its foundation in the bush (Bush Schools Australia). The concept itself has been adapted and interpreted from the forest schools of Scandinavia and in the UK, but all the materials and content have been adapted to suit the Australian culture and environment. Fargher (2012) writes that the Australian bush is a learning environment unlike any other, yet Australian children have not had a model of education that allows children to be outdoors for extended periods of time and to develop a connection with the environment.
At Westgarth Kindergarten (Fargher, 2012) educators believe that childhood is precious and that an important part of childhood is being outside in nature. Children in the Bush Kinder have the opportunity to experience the changing weather – to be outside in the rain, respond to the wind, play according to what nature has provided, get wet or feel the sun on their skin – all of this stimulates the content of their play. Children are supported in their choices, but teachers support them as they take the risk and face challenges. Children’s developmental progression, interests, and advancing skill levels is written down by teachers to support their future learning. Parents are involved in this programme, they share specific knowledge or skills, sharing their childhood stories about play in response to the children’s Bush kinder experiences (Elliott in Knight, 2013). Elliott (Knight, 2013 p.125) continues this has promoted an intensity of relationships, as one teacher stated: ‘It’s all about relationships, belonging and community’
Interest in Bush Kinder amongst like-minded educators, academics, parents and the wider community has been overwhelming, Bush Kinder will undoubtedly have a growing and bright future ahead.
Katre Abel